Adaptive Technology for the
Internet:
Making Electronic Resources Accessible to All
The
Online Version
by Barbara T. Mates
--Table of Contents--
Chapter 1
Could Helen Keller Use Your Library?
Chapter 2
Click (W)Here(?)—Basic Document Design
Chapter 3
Large-Print Access to the Internet
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Touching the Internet with Braille
Chapter 6
Adaptive Technology for Hearing Impairments
Chapter 7
Surfing the Internet with a "Different" Board
Chapter 8
Computers Reading and Speaking—"Stand-Alone" Systems
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Making It All Work—Staff Training
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Appendix 1
Websites Helpful for Information on Accessibility
Appendix 2
Selected Vendors, Manufacturers, and Consultants
Appendix 3
Bibliography and Reading Resources
"For people without disabilities, technology makes things convenient, whereas for people with disabilities, it makes things possible . . . [this] fact brings with it an enormous responsibility because the reverse is also true. Inaccessible technology can make things absolutely impossible for disabled people, a prospect we must avoid."
—Judith Heumann, Assistant Secretary of the Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education Keynote address to Microsoft
employees and experts on disabilities and technology, Redmond, Washington, February
19, 1998
It has become fashionable for libraries, like corporations, to develop mission statements or vision statements that will guide them in delivering state-of-the-art services to their patrons.
Frequently a phrase such as "equal access to information through technology" is included in one or both statements. Often forgotten in these plans, however, are accommodations for persons with disabilities who need to access information using adaptive technology.
"The 1997 National Survey of U.S. Public Libraries and the Internet," commissioned by the American Library Association (ALA), Office for Information Technology, found few libraries actually provide special software or hardware for persons with disabilities. While urban areas offered the most adapted access to hardware and software, only 15.4 percent of those responding indicated that they have made access accommodations to their automated information systems. This figure is unacceptable for entities that profess to be citadels of knowledge, dedicated to "equal access" to information. In an age where quality information available via the Internet is growing, libraries should be seeking to ensure that their systems are accessible by everyone.
While the libraries that make up the network of the National Library Service (NLS) for the Blind and Physically Handicapped provide leisure reading for three-quarters of a million people, accessible, supplemental reference and ephemeral information is still lacking. This creates a discriminatory information gap between those who have access to information and those who do not. Librarians and Web masters can remedy the information gap by ensuring that the Websites they design are accessible to those using adaptive technology and that these librarians and Web masters purchase equipment and software that will facilitate this access.
As the Regional Librarian for the Blind and Physically Handicapped at the Cleveland Public Library, I see the growing need for computer access by the population we serve. More patrons are acquiring adaptive technology for home use and are anxious to "get on the information highway." Other patrons, curious about the Internet but lacking funds to purchase their own equipment, are seeking public environments to access the Internet.
This work seeks to guide information providers in establishing accessible Websites and acquiring the hardware and software needed by people with disabilities. The book focuses on access to the Internet using large print, voice, and Braille. Contributors Judith Dixon and Doug Wakefield are respected experts in the field of adaptive technology and the Internet. Both have lectured widely on the subject and use adaptive technology extensively. In this book, we describe specific products. Fortunately, new adaptive technologies are continually being developed. What we describe here is a snapshot of development at this writing. You should read these product descriptions as examples of a class of products. Use such resources as the Websites recommended in the book or in Appendix 2, "Selected Vendors, Manufacturers, and Consultants," to keep up with the latest developments.
The reader will also learn how to acquire the funds for adaptive technology, what type of equipment to choose, where to purchase the equipment, and how to inform the community of your progress. Tips for ensuring that the equipment is placed in a nurturing environment are also included. Additionally, the book will direct the reader to useful Websites and to libraries that are in various stages of providing library access to persons with disabilities.
It is my hope that this book will help librarians and information providers add substance to the language in mission statements concerning persons with disabilities. Technology has the promise of aiding everyone; the information explosion should not be limited to the "temporally abled."
Notes
1. J. C. Bertot, C. R. McClure, and P. D. Fletcher, "The 1997 National Survey of U.S. Public Libraries and the Internet: Final Report"
(Washington, D.C.: American Library Association, Office for Information Technology Policy, 1997). Available at:
http://www.research.umbc.edu/~bertot/ala.97.
The author acknowledges that without the help of colleagues (known and unknown) this work would not have been possible. Therefore she would like to say "thanks again" to a few of them.
Judy and Doug, thanks for always saying "yes" to requests for sharing your vast knowledge of adaptive technology with us novices. We will try to pass it on.
James, thanks for doing all the charts with less-than-coherent directions from myself.
Rocky and Dessie, thanks for sending all the equipment pictures to me; it saved me precious time.
To all my colleagues who are making their libraries and information accessible, thank you for leading the way. A special thank you to those of you who took the time to fill out my survey; your contributions helped form a very important part of this book and serve as examples of what is possible. An extra special "thank you" to Audrey Gorman for her contribution on access for patrons with learning disabilities.
To the Website managers at "DO-IT," WebABLE!, ATRC (Toronto), Trace, EASI, CPB/WGBH, CAST, LC/NLS, WAI, Sun Microsystems, Disabilities Resources, Inc., Closing the Gap, Inc., Cleveland Public Library, and other quality Websites, my eternal gratitude. Without your efforts in creating information-rich Websites, this work would not have been possible.
Lastly, thanks to Patrick Hogan, Editorial Director for ALA Editions, for asking "if I'd like to write a book," as well as Mary Huchting for her understanding and Joan McLaughlin who fixed the "grammar." Thanks to Dianne Rooney for her artistic flair.
Chapter 1
It is estimated that in the United States alone, there are 12 million visually impaired persons plus 39 million learning disabled persons who cannot access printed materials because of their disabilities. Additionally, 11.7 million physically disabled people also perceive the format of books and paper as obstructions to information access, for they cannot hold a book or turn a sheet of paper.
The access problem people with disabilities encounter with printed books applies to all printed materials, including items such as informational fliers, newspapers, general correspondence, and information found via standard computer access.
Persons who are visually impaired or learning disabled must use another sense (hearing or touch) to read printed text. People with physical impairments must find a way to manipulate the format of the text or their ability to learn will be limited to the one "page" of information they can see.
All people with disabilities must be allowed equal access to information. If they do not have equal access to information, they will not receive an education that will allow them to thrive in a competitive society.
While the suggestion of referring the patron to the NLS or the RFB&D for books is indeed commendable, it is too limiting. Both organizations pride themselves on their holdings, but they cannot keep pace with the publishing world. Of the 40,000 books published annually, the NLS is able to add only 2,000, while public libraries serving a similar-size population purchase 31,420 titles.{2} The 2,000 titles the NLS chooses must fill the needs of patrons from the ages of one to 101, while attempting to meet the informational needs of all patrons at all times of their lives. This means the number of titles available on any subject or genre is going to be extremely limited. The NLS is also very careful not to produce titles whose information is time-sensitive and likely to be out-of-date soon after the production of the book, or local histories, or items of limited interests. This means that pop culture and current trends do not receive much coverage, and the acquisition of ready reference materials is nonexistent.
In addition to not being able to have an in-depth collection, another problem encountered when referring persons with disabilities to the NLS is that many of these libraries are remotely located in respect to the patron's neighborhood. Thus, the disabled person would have to find a way to get to the library with the books or the adapted technology.
While it is still economically necessary to refer disabled patrons to the NLS libraries for the bulk of their recreational reading materials, all libraries with computers and Internet access can provide gateways to sites with complete texts as well as community bulletin-board information, in addition to current information such as newspapers and magazines.
As for asking a friend or neighbor to read the material, this would be akin to producing an informational flier in Mandarin and, when asked for an English version, saying, "Sorry, I cannot give you one; however, a computer will translate the words on the flier, but I am afraid it is located at a library 100 miles away."
Although technology has become easier to use and less expensive, many libraries still take the referral approach to patrons with disabilities. They see their budgets shrinking and feel adapting their library equipment and their collections is nonprudent, for "persons with disabilities do not use their library." If they were to reevaluate the thought process that brought them to such a conclusion, however, they would find a way to budget funds for information access.
What adaptive devices would you purchase if it were possible for Helen Keller, Albert Einstein, Robert Louis Stevenson, or Pierre-Auguste Renoir to be born again into the community you serve and become a library patron? What modifications would you make to your Website if you knew that Stephen Hawking or Christopher Reeve were accessing it? "Whatever it takes" is the answer most information providers would give, for these people are known to be valued contributors to our society, and they have a constant need to access information.
By now most information providers have formed rather strong opinions about the Internet. The Internet is the actual interconnectivity of computer-based information resources around the world. A variety of methods facilitate communications between these computer systems. Electronic mail is one of the most popular ways for individuals and businesses to use the Internet. Those who love the Internet do so because of all the information that can accessed; those who hate it, hate it because in addition to all the useful information found on the highway there are detours of inaccurate information, chat rooms, and noninformation. For librarians and information specialists who are aware of the lack of accessible information for readers who are print impaired, however, the Internet coupled with adaptive technology is as important as the invention of the printing press.
People with disabilities but with access to computers equipped with adaptive technology can independently find and access information. Software programs can increase the size of the printed word so much that the person with a severe visual impairment can read what is on the screen. Screen readers read aloud with voice synthesizers text displayed on the computer screen, making it accessible to people who are blind and visually impaired as well as some learning disabled people with dyslexia. Mouse and keyboard simulators allow persons whose mobility is limited to one finger to cruise the Internet. And special switches allow patrons who can control minimal voluntary muscles (e.g., mouth, eye, foot) to keep current with the world around them.
Librarians and information specialists must help to make the Internet accessible to all. They can do this by first making sure their Website is accessible; second, they can be sure that they have adaptive computers available in accessible locations. Additionally, they should avoid subscribing to commercial sites that present obstacles to patrons using adaptive computer equipment. Who would pay to access a cardiology database written only with cuneiform? Why pay for databases that screen readers can't access?
Many people in the electronic communication industry agree with the need for access for all by all, and they are refusing to buy nonaccessible computer products. Larry Goldberg, Director of Media Access, National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM), expressed the need for "curb cuts" in cyberspace and pointed out that the users are the only ones who can make the demand known.{3} Windows 95, for instance, was released with more access features for visually impaired users than ever anticipated or hoped for. Goldberg believes that five new employees were hired to create access because the state of Massachusetts and the federal government told Microsoft that Massachusetts and the federal government would not be able to purchase the new operating system for their hundreds of thousands of employees because of laws requiring equal access in the public workplace. The added features offer all users of Windows 95 a multitude of input and output alternatives for a broad range of users, not just the disabled.
Microsoft's owner, Bill Gates, admitted that today's most powerful software is becoming more graphics oriented and that the World Wide Web (WWW) is threatening to become less accessible to the blind. He stated that Microsoft was developing and would soon release technology designed to make it easy for authors and third parties to add closed-captioning and audio description to Web pages and software applications.{4}
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) launched an International Program Office for Web Accessibility in the fall of 1997. It has received funding from the Department of Education and the National Science Foundation (NSF). President Clinton endorsed the venture by stating, "The Web has the potential to be one of technology's greatest creators of opportunity, bringing the resources of the world directly to all people, but this can only be done if the Web is designed in a way that enables everyone to use it."{5}
Universal design is simply designing and acquiring services, buildings, materials, and equipment that can be used by a wide range of the population with various abilities and disabilities. Libraries have the ability to make the right choices when building their physical and virtual sites and for ensuring that all people will be able to use their facilities.
Demanding access for all library users makes sense morally and financially. With all the hype relating to digital media, an even greater need exists for a universally designed "Everyone Interface," for all forms of storing and transmitting digital media are not accessible by readers who are print impaired. We must all be careful that our equipment will have enough speed to access and retrieve the information we request. For example, an image or sound clip may take minutes to receive and download while the text version takes only seconds. The image or sound clip, however, would be usable by people who were unable to hear or see and would be accessible to the people and libraries who are unable to purchase new computers every year.
Assistive technology is still frequently seen as an extra burden and extra expense. Generally, libraries have relegated the purchase and replacement of adaptive equipment to the realm of grants and gifts. They seldom spend money from the general fund on anything that's perceived as an added service or a frill.
Part of this attitude is based on lack of knowledge about the current state of the art in assistive technology. Part is from an erroneous belief that such technology is dedicated to and usable by only small groups of users and is very expensive. Some is based on earlier, more cumbersome technology and speculative, untested rationales for purchase that led to unused equipment gathering dust. And the rest comes from the impression that "it's not our responsibility" or that someone else is better equipped for the job.
It's true that not all assistive technology is used to the extent projected. That's also true of some books, journals, and other technology we invest in. We're not always right. With that admission out of the way, we can learn from our mistakes, learn from research, and continue to pursue service solutions for which we have good rationales.
Much assistive technology is now in software form, not confined to dedicated, single-function machines. Those do still exist for situations in which they're the best solution. The trend is toward off-the-shelf hardware and software that is designed to be adapted to the needs of many users. As with much technology, prices have fallen rapidly and continue to shrink. Slight added expense can be balanced against usefulness to more people.
The principle of universal design is being applied to make products and services available to the greatest number of people while taking diversity into account. Adaptations like the ability to increase font size and magnification are built in. Information is presented in redundant forms, covering a wide range of preferred learning styles and formats. Almost everybody can find some of the available features useful. The same features can spell the difference between information access and information poverty for those who truly need them.
"Access for all" is a phrase that is used a lot in the library world. Making information accessible to our communities is our job. If the phrase and the job are to be meaningful, we must discard outdated notions, take some chances, and make some mistakes. Whether Christopher Reeve or Helen Keller or Stephen Hawking use our services is irrelevant if we embrace the notion that we can and should give them access to what everyone else has. Whether the users we attract and serve become versed in quantum physics or physical fitness, we need to support their right to information. It's not only professionally and morally correct, it's the law. To disregard it is to really take chances.
Seniors also will be able to continue to access information. Many disabilities, such as the loss of vision, hearing, and the ability to flex one's hand, develop with age. In a world that is aging, one will see more people go from being "baby boomers" to "geri boomers"—remember, baby boomers are well educated and demanding and will want access to everything that there is. Having a working adaptive-technology plan in place will serve as a foundation for the new millennium.
Helen Keller was indeed a great person and an inspiration for everyone who has ever read her biography or watched a movie about her life and achievements; she was so great, in fact, she caused many people to learn incorrect information about the people who are blind and the people who are deaf.
Helen Keller was both blind and deaf, but most people with sensory disabilities are either blind (or visually impaired) or deaf (or hearing impaired). Basically, people who are deaf can (but not all do) read lips and print; many people who are hearing impaired do not know American Sign Language (ASL), but many people do. People who are blind can learn by auditory signals, but Braille is a writing medium of choice for many people with this type of disability. Many blind people do not know Braille and virtually none know ASL. Thus, no "one" piece of equipment will serve the needs of both the blind and the deaf populations. Understanding the manner in which each group as a whole intakes information will help with planning (as much as financially and practically as possible) for universal access.
The disability term visual impairment is broad in scope. It includes people who are color blind; people who have only peripheral vision; people who have only tunnel vision; people who cannot read standard print but can read large print. The commonality is that reading text on a computer screen is a challenge. Persons with usable vision will choose to access the computer visually rather than aurally.
Persons with visual impairments use a variety of adaptions to help them access information. All, however, require some type of screen-magnification hardware and software combination. A large monitor, for instance, will display text proportionally to the dimensions of the monitor; software programs, however, allow the user to enlarge the print if needed.
When designing a computer workstation for persons who are visually impaired, it may be helpful to use large-print keytops for the keyboard. Large-print keytops are a necessity for persons with visual impairments who never learned to type to learn how the keys of a standard QWERTY keyboard are laid out. Large-print keytops make it easier for everyone to "sneak a peek" at the keyboard, which increases the speed of inputting information.
The disability term blind is sometimes used generically when talking about a group of people whose vision is severely impaired to the degree that they cannot receive any visual cues. They rely on auditory or tactile signals to access information.
When using computers, people who are blind may employ screen readers with speech synthesizers or Braille displays. The blind user utilizes keyboard navigation tools such as <TAB> and <ARROW> controls to move through menus, buttons, icons, text areas, and other parts of the graphic display to learn his or her position rather than a pointing device such as a mouse.{6} Without descriptive text or descriptions of illustrations and graphics, the blind user does not know what the object on the video display is.
When designing a computer workstation for patrons who are blind, it may be helpful to use tactile home-key markers or Braille keytops. The latter is useful for persons who never learned the QWERTY keyboard.
The term mobility impairment is a general term that applies not only to persons who experience difficulty physically accessing a workstation or a keyboard or reading, but also to persons who have difficulty simultaneously pressing multiple keys of a computer (for example, <ALT-SHIFT-DEL>) or who lack the coordination to move a mouse and click the action button. This group of people would gain access to computers by using keyboard alternatives, mouse alternatives, and speech recognition through voice input. Many would also gain access through software that solves access problems.
A person with a mobility impairment may also be entering a facility via a wheelchair or a walker. This person would need a workstation that has the flexibility of height adjustment, which is useful for everyone, allowing a range of short and tall persons to comfortably use the workstation.
The term hearing impairment is a general term that applies to persons who have difficulty discriminating changes in frequency or hearing certain frequencies. They may also have difficulties localizing sounds and differentiating background noises. Workstations for such users should be placed in areas with the least amount of distracting background noise, and headphones should be made available.
Persons with hearing impairments do not face many problems when using computers because of the minimal use of sound. As sound is added to Internet sites that are intended to reinforce a user action (i.e., chimes), however, visual data should be added. Software programs that translate auditory cues into visual cues on-screen also are helpful.
Large facilities should additionally be equipped with items such as Telecommunication Devices for the Deaf (TDDs) Teletypewriters (TTY), personal speech amplifiers (for example, pocket talkers), and visual alerting devices for emergency evacuations such as hand-lettered signs like BLIZZARD—CLOSING IN 15 MINUTES.
Persons who are deaf have difficulty sensing any auditory cues. Like persons who are hearing impaired, they have few problems accessing the computer and the Internet. Software programs that caption auditory output are essential to the user, as are software programs that translate auditory beeps into visual displays.
Persons who are deaf also are helped by the same equipment as that supplied for the hearing impaired. Many people who are born deaf or become deaf early in life benefit from written instructions or sign language.
Learning disabilities are neurological differences that can affect reading, writing, speaking and doing math. Specific learning disabilities differ from person to person, so individual needs must be taken into account. However, a few rules of thumb can improve access for the greatest number of people.
Whether dealing with online public access catalogs (OPACs), Web pages, or other information sources, contrast should be high and fonts simple for optimal readability. The ability to change font size, contrast, and colors is a must, but is now more common on standard software, particularly word processors. Consistent layout and clear navigation buttons with both graphic and text labels make navigation easier for everyone, but are essential for many people with disabilities. Background should be simple to improve readability and reduce distraction.
Directions should be broken down into steps and jargon avoided, including library jargon. White space and bulleting can clarify steps, reduce distraction, and focus attention. All graphics should have text alternatives or labels, which can be done in a variety of ways. This rule applies to computers and to signage throughout the facility.
Many people with moderate to severe reading disabilities, called dyslexia, benefit from optical character recognition and voice synthesizer software coupled with highlighting of the text being spoken. Using sight and sound together enhances speed and comprehension and may improve reading overall. Highlighting assists the user in keeping his or her place and following along. Adding a flatbed scanner ensures access to a wide variety of material not in electronic format.
People with a writing disability called dysgraphia are able to produce readable text, including notes on readings, by using a keyboard, although keyboarding may be difficult for some to learn. Alternative keyboards may be helpful, since they allow the user to customize the layout and appearance of the keys.
Spelling difficulties, a hallmark of dyslexia, can be addressed with a combination of common spell checker, word prediction software, and voice synthesizer. Word prediction can be helpful to people with keyboarding, spelling, or grammar problems or difficulty coming up with the right word.
People with memory and organizational problems, as well as those who have difficulty expressing their thoughts in writing, can be assisted with outlining and brainstorming or mind mapping programs. Information gathering and later reorganization are simplified.
Other conditions that affect learning include attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, and mental retardation. Some of the adaptations that help people with learning disabilities are also useful to those with ADD and ADHD, especially since many of them also have LD. Carrels, small study rooms and other settings with minimum distraction are helpful to both groups, but essential to many with ADD or ADHD. Headphones block out extraneous noise and also reduce the general sound level in the library.
Figure 1.1 (Varied accessibility solutions) gives an overview of the possibilities of adaptive technology for aiding persons with disabilities. The following chapters will describe how to make Websites accessible and how to discern which ones are not accessible, plus how to adapt your computers, budgets, and staff to facilitate access for all.
Chapter 2
Because medical research concludes that each human being has a unique genetic code, a standard prescription for "adaptive Internet access" cannot be written. Instead, tools such as screen readers, refreshable Braille displays, and text enlargers may be purchased and offered to patrons with disabilities so they themselves will choose and use what will help them. One item that can be standardized, however, and will help all people with or without disabilities, is a commitment to good Web design.
One authoritative source to consult for guidelines regarding accessible HyperText Markup Language (HTML) tagging is the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which on April 7, 1997, announced the launch of its Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) to promote and achieve Web functionality for people with disabilities. Tim Berners-Lee, director of the W3C and inventor of the WWW, said, "The W3C is committed to removing accessibility barriers for all people with disabilities, including the deaf, blind, physically challenged, and cognitive or visually impaired. We plan to work aggressively with government, industry, and community leaders to establish and attain Web accessibility goals."{1} Initially, the group's focus will be to develop protocols and data formats aimed at making the Web itself more accessible, but it has also completed the first "Public Working Draft of WAI Page Author Guidelines" to aid those who want to use accessible tagging in their HTML documents.{2} To meet the accessibility goals of the W3C, the Websites and resource pages must be accessible to all patrons. It is very helpful to be aware of Web design principles advocated by organizations that specialize in accessible design. These organizations include Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology (DO-IT) (www.weber.u.washington.edu/~doit), Starling Access Services (www.starlingweb.com), and the Trace Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (www.trace.wisc.edu). These organizations advocate adherence to universal design principles to transcend the limitations of HTML documents.
The Trace Center's definition of universal design is "the process of creating products (devices, environments, systems, and processes) that are usable by people with the widest range of abilities, operating within the widest possible range of situations (environments, conditions, and circumstances).{3}
DO-IT also advocates universal design principles to guarantee access for those
who
cannot hear audio because of hearing impairments.
use slow connections and modems or older equipment that cannot download large files.
have difficulty navigating sites that are poorly organized with unclear directions because they have learning disabilities, speak English as a second language, or are younger than the average user.
use adaptive technology with their computer to access the Web (www.weber.u.washington.edu/~doit/Brochures/Technology/
universal.design.html).
The Web page designer addressing universal design and accessibility is more concerned with information dissemination for all, rather than visual appeal for most. When designing the document, an attempt is made to make all the material displayed as accessible as possible, whether it is a menu item, graphic, or video clip. Creating accessible Web pages may not take additional money, just more time and consideration.
HTML is the markup method used for documents or pages found on the World Wide Web. The site's designer can use this code to create hypertext references to other HTML pages and resources, both within the site or anywhere else on the Internet. HTML code uses American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) text and can be created using text editors. Web documents are coded or marked up with tags that will tell the program where the author wants pages to end, when he or she wants a list created, when he or she wants a statement emphasized.
Using HTML correctly will enable screen readers and refreshable Braille display to interpret the information on the site as the page's author wishes it to be seen. It is not difficult, once you begin to think in a text mode rather than a visual or artistic mode. Using HTML correctly will present the site for the user using adaptive technology. Screen readers, for example, always start reading left to right and always at the same pitch, while people using their natural vision will probably start reading in a variety of places before settling in on the first sentence.
Avoid underlining text, as partially sighted individuals will have a hard time discerning the actual text with the line grazing the bottom of the letters. It is also wise to avoid capitalizing whole words, for persons with low vision or with a learning disability may have a difficult time discerning the beginning and the end of a word.
It is always advisable to test the pages on the mainstream browsers such as Netscape and Internet Explorer as well as Lynx, to make sure alternative text is viewable and complete. Also, send the pages to an online accessibility clearing site such as Bobby, created by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), which will highlight nonstandard and incorrect HTML used, as well as a myriad of other features.
The background chosen for Websites and home pages is important to those using adaptive devices to access information. A solid color is always a good choice and patterns or textures should be avoided. For instance, graceful morning glories used as a background for a directory menu may be visually appealing for users without print disabilities, but impossible for a person with low vision or a learning disability to read. A better choice would be to make the background solid blue and the print white. While it is advisable to use one of the 16 colors that a 16-color Video Graphics Array (VGA) adapter can support, the color chosen is not so important as the contrast between the background and text.
Test the background on a black-and-white monitor as well as on several sizes and qualities of color monitors. Black and white will help you decide if the color contrast is sufficient. Some colors do not translate to black and white well (many users of screen readers set their monitors on black and white), nor hold their color resolution on oversize monitors. Larger monitors do not always have the ability to absorb all of the pixels involved in creating shades of tertiary colors.
Consistency is very important for users of your site. Important features of your page design should be in the same place on every page of your site. Knowing where directional buttons, messages, and menus are located will allow users to find what they need quickly and efficiently. While creativity may tempt you to tinker with your page design, don't-make it right and then leave it alone.
It is helpful, when producing long documents, to include a Table of Contents with links to key sections and the ability to return to the home page and Table of Contents at will. This is necessary for users of screen readers who may wish to use the Review command of their screen reader to skim the article before actually reading it.
Most users of the World Wide Web will admit that links to external sites are the most intriguing and enjoyable part of the surfing experience, for you don't know exactly where you will end up. So care should be taken to ensure that all the links you add can be easily found. If possible, try to avoid using the term "Click here," for it may not be obvious to everyone where "here" is. The required action should be evident, as Internet users already know that you need to "click" to travel onward.
Avoid multiple links in one sentence or paragraph. For instance, this sentence will not be clearly understood by a screen reader: "We are a Frescia County Agency serving families in transition. Our goal is to locate low-cost housing for the homeless of Frescia County by job retraining and by teaching household budgeting and parenting skills. We also maintain an Information and Referral Directory at Frescia County Main Library."
While the developers of the site want to convey that they are a Frescia County Agency whose mission is to find housing for homeless families, and the site offers links to further information on household budgeting, parenting skills, and job retraining programs, the screen reader may miss the hypertext links. It would be preferable to offer an introductory paragraph stating the mission of the agency and then offer links in a single column.
Likewise, links should be written in a manner that is not distracting to the user. For instance, a sun that smiles and scrolls the command to "Click here for hours and events" is not so understandable as a steady sun smile button with a text description of the smiling sun stating "hours and events." Persons with learning disabilities may be distracted by the blinking sun and persons with low vision may not be able to follow the scrolling bar.
It is wise to avoid using images without descriptive text as links. While most users may think that "Click here for more" under the picture of a book will bring up a similar list of books, persons with learning disabilities may not interpret it as such, and people using screen readers will not know what it is. It may be better to write (using brackets): "[Click here for similar titles on subject]" or even better "[More titles of the subject]." If you use a graphic, be sure to include supplementary text.
If you use icons to represent hypertext links, be sure the chosen icon is large enough for someone with mobility impairment to "find the target" for the click.
Generally speaking, avoid the use of tables to create multiple columns, if possible. Remember that screen readers read left to right, which means a three-column directory document will be misread by the reader. The director of Starling Access Services suggests using headings, paragraphs, lists, and definition elements creatively to present information in a more accessible manner. It is helpful to end items on the lists or sentences with appropriate punctuation marks, for the screen readers do recognize and translate them for the user.
If you definitely want to use tables to create columns, you will have to experiment with modifications to table markup for the content in the columns to be rendered in the correct order by a text browser or screen reader. For example, placing a <BR> tag at the end of a row in a table will create a break in text that a browser or reader will recognize as a signal to move on to the next line of text.
Screen reader developers are currently working on methods to have their software read within a table rather than across columns.
Yes, you are proud of your new building and you are correct in wanting it displayed on your Website. When you incorporate the graphic, however, you need to offer a succinct description for the visually impaired visitor. Duplicating the text in the <ALT TEXT> element of the <IMG SRC> tag will allow users with screen readers to read the description you formulate. Using the <ALT TEXT> tag allows nonsighted users to read descriptions without forcing sighted users to view them. The National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM) also suggests using a "D" link to take the user who needs more description to another page where the author of the page has space to fully describe the image.
It is also wise to avoid placing more than one photograph on a page for the resulting <ALT TEXT> may be incorrectly interpreted by the screen unless you are sure you are using a good design reader. For instance, a Website home page welcoming visitors to visit Cleveland for its myriad of activities may show a picture of the mayor, the new Louis Stokes wing of the Cleveland Public Library, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and Jacob's Field. The screen reader reading only the <ALT TEXT> tags may interpret the page as "The Mayor of Cleveland, Louis Stokes Wing, Rock and Roll, Jacob's Field" or may only pick up the words "Mayor, Wing, Roll, Jacob's Field," which really says nothing about anything.
When graphics are used as image maps, which allow different areas of the image to represent hypertext links to other documents, it is important to provide alternate means of selecting items directly above or below the image map. Instructions for the user who is relying on a screen reader should also be included.{4}
Using frames can create a page that is inaccessible to those using screen readers. If frames are necessary, an effective alternative to the frames page should be included. The <NOFRAME> tag should always be included when using framed pages. This tag allows entire documents to be displayed in browsers that are incapable of displaying frames.
Very often when quickly skimming Websites our eyes will be drawn to lists, for we know that lists offer a summation of the text and the bullets or numbers indicate what the author wants us to read. With screen readers, however, bullets may be interpreted as dots, asterisks, or periods. Instead of using text bullets in an HTML document, use the correct tagging: <UL> to start the bulleted list; <LI> before each bulleted item; and </UL> to end the list. Browsers will interpret these tags and insert correctly formatted bullets before each item. Always remember to add a period at the end of each item on the list. This will tell the screen reader that it is at the end of one item and will allow it to move on to the next item on the list.
Similarly, numbered lists should not be created by inserting numbers in the HTML text document, but rather by using appropriate tagging: <OL> to start the numbered list, <LI> before each numbered item, and </OL> to end the list.
Forms are yet another roadblock for screen readers, although screen-reading developers are confident that they will find a solution to the problems encountered, according to Judith Dixon in an article in Library Hi Tech.{5} Readers do not know where the fill-in box is, how many lines must be filled out, or when they have reached the end of the form. Thus, if you wish visitors to your site to fill out electronic applications, offer an alternative method, such as a simple "mail to" link that could ask them to submit the same information in e-mail messages.
Other options would be to offer the ability to download the form as a text or PDF file, or to put up an image that could be printed out. The user would then have a paper version of the form that could be filled out and submitted.
Many Websites now include audio clips as part of their information presentation. Appropriately used audio clips, such as a reading of Langston Hughes' poetry on a special-events page announcing a poetry day at the community center, make the site enjoyable, educational, and informational. While computer users who are visually impaired or learning disabled would actually benefit from this oral feature, users who are deaf or hard of hearing would miss the creativity that went into formulating this page unless the site was linked to a captioned version or a transcription of the reading. A text translation would allow the user who is deaf to "hear" the poetry.
Adding a location map to your Website is useful for patrons who can see and interpret it, but for persons without vision (screen browsers do not interpret images such as maps and may take the user down a circular pathway) or persons with conceptual disabilities, maps are useless. Including an alternative menu of the information on the image will ensure that all patrons find your information.
Simply stated, all HTML Java Applet tags should contain a short text description. This is valuable to users who are using screen readers (also for those not having a Java-capable browser).
When you finally complete your Web page, send it to Bobby, a Web-based validation service developed and maintained by CAST.{6} This Web-based service will help ensure that you have followed all the rules that allow access to people with disabilities. All that you need to do once you are interfaced with Bobby (and have read the updated instructions) is to enter the Universal Resource Locator (URL) of the site you want checked and submit the information. Bobby will then analyze the tagging in your document and display an annotated version of the original page. Whenever an access problem is perceived, a picture of Bobby's hat with the disability access symbol will appear.
Clicking on the hat itself will bring an explanation of the perceived access problem. The Bobby program is so sophisticated that it can also discern if browser compatibility problems exist. In the case of such problems, a plain hat will appear.
Again, clicking on the hat will tell you the problem. Bobby will also offer you possible solutions. Bobby checks for many items.
Bobby will also check your site to see how various browsers will interact with it by checking the accuracy of the tagging in your document. It will point out tags that it does not recognize, for this means that browsers will not recognize them either. It looks for misplaced tags in tables and forms, and makes sure that all tags have a properly placed opening and closing tag so that browsers will interpret the entire document correctly.
After Bobby checks your page, pointing out problems and offering suggestions, it will summarize the accessibility errors in what Bobby's developers feel are the order of importance. The errors closest to the top of the report are the most important to change. Because the items are ranked, Bobby is able to compute the accessibility score for the page, giving it a ranking of one, two, three, or four stars. A four-star page entitles the page to use the "Bobby approved icon" (figure 2-1: Bobby approved icon).
If you feel that you have followed accessibility guidelines in the creation
of your Web pages and have passed Bobby's validation process, you might want
to announce to your users that yours is an accessible site. In cooperation with
the Trace Center and other professionals in the area of assistive technology,
the CPB/WGBH NCAM provides the Web Access Symbol, which can be used by authors
of Web pages to denote that their sites contain accessibility features that
will accommodate the needs of disabled users. The symbol and its accompanying
<ALT TEXT> description ["Web Access Symbol (for people with disabilities)"]
can be downloaded from the NCSM Web pages at www.wgbh.org/wgbh/pages/ncam/symbol
winner.html (figure 2-2: Web Access Symbol).
Kathy Gill, Website author of eNetDigest, succinctly answers the question of what makes a great Website in one word-content.{7} She goes on to say that there is a place for Shockwave, Java, Real Audio, and whatever is yet to come, but content should come first and foremost in site development and maintenance. She also maintains that a site should have maximum browser compatibility and recommends working with Lynx (a text-based browser) because if Lynx can view a document, Braille displays and screen browsers should be able to interpret it correctly as well.
Also remember that at times we all experience some type of "virtual" disability in our cyperspace explorations. We may be "virtually hearing impaired" because we are trying to work in a noisy environment where we can't hear spoken computer commands or signals, or we may be "virtually color blind" because we're stuck using older monitors without the latest SVGA components. Rick Cook, in his article entitled "Best Practices: Web Design for Everyone Including the Disabled," astutely pointed out that having Websites validated by a source such as Bobby is in reality a "sanity check for Web designers," as it reminds designers to be "consistent and simple, and not cute for cute's sake."{8} Web designers should also test their sites with a variety of browser software, different versions of that software, and on different computer platforms.
If you adhere to the WC3's Accessibility Guidelines, you will have the most accessible Website possible. It will be one that all persons with or without disabilities will be able to use. Even if you do not qualify for Bobby's four-star rating, you and your Website patrons will know you made the attempt and at the very least will probably be able to read more of what you were offering than if you made no attempt at all.
Chapter 3
Perhaps the adaptive technology that can be added which will get the most use is large-print access to the computers and subsequently to the Internet. Large print stands to aid several groups of people with disabilities: those whose vision is diminishing and those with learning disabilities who have difficulty processing standard-print information.
People with visual impairments, but with sufficient vision to see letters, may prefer to access materials found online by sight. They may also use a speech synthesizer if the text is lengthy and much research is necessary.
Some people with learning disabilities often benefit from large-print displays. Enlarged letters displayed on a contrasting background allow the user to interpret letters and form words with less difficulty.
Two components are needed to yield good screen magnification and access to information: screen-enlargement software and hardware suitable for handling the display.
Screen-magnification software enables people with sensory impairments to enlarge the screen display by virtually any factor they choose. The programs run simultaneously with the operating system and applications and can be programmed to enlarge certain areas of the screen or the entire display.
A few mainstream browsers and word processors allow the user to enlarge the display, and Microsoft's Windows 95 has accessibility features built into its operating system. These are products that are probably owned and used on a fairly regular basis. Their products will provide learning disabled users with the maximum enlargement possible.
Netscape is a popular browser and contains utilities that allow the user to specify the size of the font displayed, as well as the colors of the display. While the options are easy to change, help will probably be required to make the needed changes, for the initial display will be in standard print and in boxes. The steps to increase the font size are easy to follow. Simply:
All changes will be reflected on most Websites that are visited and Internet connections that are made. (Some Web designers override font selection with their own font definitions, which can adversely affect the browser settings.)
If your only accessibility option is to use Netscape's accessibility features, it will be necessary to allow users to adapt the browser with each search. Be sure that the display monitor is oversize (19 inches or larger).
Netscape also allows the users to adjust all the colors of the screen display. This includes foreground, background, text display, and links. To adjust all these items does take a little work, but could help the user.
Microsoft's Internet Explorer (versions 3.1 and higher) as well as its other mass-market software products allow the user to change the size of the text for viewing on-screen and have it carried forward in the printed document. While the magnification included will not be large enough for the most severely visually impaired, it will aid those patrons who are starting to lose vision and those patrons who can comprehend words more easily when they are displayed in large, bold type. While all the fonts can be made to display and print in bold or a point size larger than 14 point, most would not be usable by persons with visual and comprehension disabilities. The fonts believed to be most accessible are Arial, Century Gothic, Tahoma, Tahoma Bold, and Verdana, for they do not have serifs and are not script or calligraphy.
Changing the size of the text displays in Internet Explorer are simply explained by Microsoft as "Click on the View menu, point to Fonts, then click the size you want." The instructions for Encarta are similar, for they instruct the user "to increase text size, click on the Options menu, point to Text Size, then click the text size you want." The problem with these instructions and the actual procedures is that a person with low vision will have difficulty seeing the instructions and viewing the displays because all the information is written in standard print so the user will need help until the display is adjusted. If the user wants to do anything more than browse the Web, just changing the text size is not sufficient; screen-enlargement software will be necessary.
The Microsoft products (Windows 95 or later) also contain a few other features geared toward accessibility. The products allow the use of high-contrast settings to view the displays. The instructions given to activate the utility are:
Two other features worth noting that can be accessed through the Control Panel line are the abilities to enlarge the size of the mouse pointer, change its color, and slow it down, and invoke the Sounds option that will auditorily announce items such as the opening and closing of programs or minimizing or maximizing the size of windows.
A review of the product by the Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness News Service noted that Microsoft has two products that it sells separately, IntelliType (keyboard software) and IntelliPoint (mouse software, available with the newest model of the Microsoft mouse), which are useful for persons with low vision.{1} With both products, the mouse pointer can be located using a sonar function. When the control key is pressed, a shrinking circle appears around the mouse pointer, highlighting its location. Both can automatically place the mouse pointer over the default button when a dialogue box is opened. In IntelliPoint, it is possible to activate a "cometlike trail" for the mouse pointer and slow down the speed of its movement over icons, buttons, and other controls. For further information on the accessibility features of Microsoft's products, visit Microsoft's Website, for printed information is sparse.{2}
Screen-magnification programs allow the user with low vision to access computer information by enlarging the display on the screen by any factor he or she needs. These products, which are usually included in the higher-end magnification programs, offer a wide range of magnification options to the users and allow them to tailor the display to accommodate their particular type of disability. Some products will allow the user to enlarge the text and shrink the screen, to provide one-line-at-a-time access. Some programs enlarge the entire screen, while others only enlarge the area around the mouse, producing a moving enlargement area. Other programs provide a set of mouse-tracking features such as the option to link the mouse pointer to the screen movement and limit the movement to horizontal or vertical directions only. These features are extremely helpful when using the Internet.
Additionally, screen-magnification programs offer the user a variety of screen options for viewing the magnified area of the screen. A user can use the software to split the screen into magnified and unmagnified areas and to move across the page at a preset speed (usually as fast as the user's vision permits him or her to read).
This is the ideal solution to address the needs of visually impaired users, for problems with compatibility usually lie with resident video drivers such as those installed in Microsoft's products. Many manufacturers recommend installing their products on a specific driver and give advised resolution and color-depth settings. Research specialists admit that installing the programs is tricky, although some developers have been working directly with the major market products to resolve incompatibility issues. Always check with the manufacturer before purchasing to ensure that the software is compatible with the video card that is installed. Following are several discussions of popular screen-magnification software programs.
The ZoomText family of software products was developed by the Ai Squared Corporation. The Zoom windows can be customized to the user's preference by using full- or partial-screen window types and displaying up to six windows at once. There are 11 magnification levels and "edge smoothing" to eliminate distortions caused by enlarging standardized text. The user can scroll to view any portion of the split screen in a Zoom window. The Review mode allows the user to automatically jump to a targeted area of the screen by using a hotkey. Another feature of ZoomText is that it allows the user to keep track of screen activity such as text entry, mouse movement, and the selection of menus and controls. Ai Squared offers a free demonstration diskette of its product.{3}
ZoomText Xtra Level II (figure 3-1: ZoomText Xtra Screen) incorporates all the previously mentioned features, but adds a huge plus-synthesized screen-reading capabilities, which will read windows and text. It is compatible with Windows 95, 98, and NT.
Why is this important? First, it helps those users who prefer screen magnification, but who occasionally need the assistance of screen readers. Before this product was developed, a separate screen reader and a screen magnifier needed to be purchased and installed so that they would work both independently and in conjunction with each other. Secondly, a workstation can be developed that is accessible by users who are visually impaired and prefer print but need speech output as well, users who are learning disabled and need speech output, and users who are blind and need speech output. There will be instances where the user who is blind may encounter difficulty.
When the product was reviewed by the University of Toronto, reviewers found that while problems did occur, the product will work with browsers such as Netscape and Internet Explorer, and that the quality of the screen reader was acceptable. It was recommended that the user purchase the fastest computer available with at least 64 MB RAM to incorporate all the features and still be able to access the Internet.{4}
ZoomText is trying to develop a solution for access to Windows NT, as well as working on Level 3 of ZoomText Xtra, which will add scanning, Optical Character Recognition (OCR), form filling, and printing to the product line. Ai Squared also hopes to develop a software program for people with learning disabilities as well.
LP-Windows is a product of Visionware that allows the user to use a menu system to magnify and stretch text on monitors. Visionware offers prospective purchasers a free 20-minute demonstration diskette.{5}
LP-Windows' program menu, which allows the user to make a myriad of changes to the display, is activated by pressing the <LEFT-SHIFT> twice. At that point the user is asked to choose the font size he or she wishes. The patron can use the menu to select the magnification needed. It is activated when <MAGNIFY> is clicked. The Magnify and Stretch box appears as well as a key sequence on the numeric pad of the keyboard. Keying in the initial font display creates a menu that is easier to use.
While there are commands that allow the user to use hotkeys to make all the display changes, everything can be accomplished through the menu. One can also choose to split the screen (the advantage is the user has a better interpretation of the total presentation), enlarge the mouse pointer, or change the way to navigate the mouse on the magnified display, use an infinite amount of color combinations for presentation, track the text, and pan the document.
Evaluated by resource specialists, LP-Windows was found to have the ability to smooth the "stretched fonts" and pan documents at a prescribed speed and distance. The product worked well with Netscape and all Internet browsers. The product also worked well with an independently installed speech program.{6}
Panorama, a product of Syntha-Voice Computers, a Canadian company headquartered in Ontario with U.S. offices in Niagara Falls, New York, is popular with North American users. The product allows the user to feel at home within the graphical environment of Microsoft's Windows by using the same access commands for navigation (a plus for staff and patrons alike).
Panorama Windows products will allow the user to adjust font size, color displays, and scrolling ability by word, line, or paragraph. An added feature is that the Large-Print Window automatically adjusts to focus on messages or prompts that may appear outside the viewing window.
Additionally, Windows Bridge, a screen reader, allows the user to control the navigation of the mouse pointer from the keyboard, if desired. A big plus is that Panorama contains a Mouse Search command that will allow the user to instantly move the mouse pointer to a specific location such as an icon or menu selection.
The product also includes a Icon Label Library, which contains descriptive labels for more than 1,000 commonly used Windows icons, as well as a feature that allows the user to point at any icon on the screen and instantly receive a descriptive label for the image.
Syntha-Voice provides potential purchasers with a demonstration of its product. Syntha-Voice also offers an audiocassette tutorial and maintains an online tutorial and manual.
Vista PCI and Super Vista for Windows are part of a family of screen-enlarging hardware developed by Telesensory Corporation. Features of the hardware, in addition to a wide array of magnification, include magnifying the portion of the screen being viewed while displaying the rest in its standard presentation.
One unique feature offered by Vista includes the ability to locate the user's place within the environment with a "ruler line" of magnification that moves around the screen when directed. The Vista family also comes with a plug-in printed circuit board and a large three-button mouse that is used to control the system.
Vista PCI is the product of many years of work by Telesensory, which realized it needed to develop a product that would work with software systems currently used by public and academic libraries. The company sought out the major vendors and attempted to develop a product that will work in harmony with networks, terminal emulation systems, and workstations to online public access catalogs (OPACs) and other online resource materials provided by libraries. The product of these labors is Vista PCI, which provides direct screen magnification of all the text and graphics and is adjusted by using a three-button mouse or keypad. The product allows the user to make the standard adjustments to the display, such as increase the size of the display font, change the colors of the display, use an electronic magnified ruler, and have dual screens as well as the ability to magnify certain areas of the screen. While Vista PCI does not have all the attributes of specialized screen magnifiers, it is the only hardware product which was developed in harmony with many of the library automation systems. A big plus of Vista PCI is that, with a companion product, V Voice, it can be used to create a workstation that can be employed by persons with visual impairment, blindness, or learning disabilities.
Telesensory provides the user manual on diskette and a demonstration diskette on request. In addition to providing product information at its Website, Telesensory maintains an excellent Website whose format can serve as a model in design and accessibility.{7}
A key piece of hardware for large-print displays is an oversize monitor. Although standard monitors (14 inches) are used by many persons using screen-enlargement software, they do not allow the user to fully take advantage of screen enhancement. Larger display monitors (19 to 20 inches) allow more of the text to be viewed. Flat displays are preferred because they reduce distortion on large screens. Oversize monitors are available commercially from mainstream vendors, as well as those specializing in adapted technology.
Several hardware solutions are available to broaden access to printed and displayed text. Following are devices that will increase the size of text, diagrams, and illustrations to an easier-to-view size.
Clearview VGA reading system is manufactured by HumanWare and provides the user with enlarged access to materials found via the computer, as well as those materials found in print. This is facilitated by adding a movable reading table that is part of a Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) system.
While these modifications are not so varied as those of specialized software products, the user is able to choose 14 different color combinations for the display, split the screen, and choose font magnification on a line-by-line basis.
In addition to the simplistic magnification, this product will work with the software programs listed previously. HumanWare will provide a no-obligation demonstration at a library facility to determine product compatibility.{8}
The Optelec Spectrum system is compatible with most systems and allows the user access to any printed materials (including handwritten documents), as well as access to text and graphics found online. This is possible because of the addition of a CCTV (figure 3-2: Optelec Spectrum system with CCTV). The CCTV will enlarge newspaper print from half an inch to more than four inches, allowing the user to read newspapers not found online. With the CCTV feature, the user with low vision can read personal mail and replay unassisted. The display is clear and the display's foreground and background can be manipulated.
If budgeting is an issue, this product, along with activating the accessibilities features of products such as Netscape or Microsoft's Explorer, will serve to help many low-vision patrons. It may not be the final solution, but it is a good starting point.
Optelec will provide a no-obligation demonstration at your site or advise you of facilities using the product.{9}
Additional factors must be considered when accessing large-print facilities.
These are for the people who never learned to type without looking at their fingers and the keys. Large print makes it easier for patrons with low vision or patrons with learning disabilities to "see" the keys. The letters and symbols of the large-print keytops fill the entire key surface (figure 3-3: Actual size of large-print keytop display), while in the standard display, the letters are relegated to the top left third of the key surface.
These press-ply keytop labels are available in high-contrast displays, are economical, and easy to install. They do hold up with public usage. They can be viewed on the Hooleon Website.{10}
Good lighting in the area where the large-print workstation is situated is as essential as providing the hardware and the software needed. A good task lamp or magnifying task lamp placed in the workstation will allow the patron with low vision to find and read large-print instructions as well see the keyboard and other items needed to feel comfortable in the work area.
Magnifying task lamps are available through vendors of specialized adaptive products as well as vendors selling craft equipment. While a halogen lamp provides the maximum amount of light, there have been reports of the lamps overheating, so it is best to use an incandescent light or a fluorescent Ott Light. The latter provides the user with a semblance of natural light and can be found at craft and hobby stores. Many people with visual impairments are sensitive to light, however, so eliminating glare in work areas should be considered.
Well-meaning intentions often put large-print workstations in areas of the library where the user can enjoy maximum privacy. This means that the low-vision patron must take a path filled with the unintentional obstacles of step stools, book trucks, and crawling children. Try to locate the accessible workstation with the other workstations or as close to the service desk as possible. In facilities where this is not feasible, remind staff to keep library materials out of potential pathways and remind parents and patrons that children may be afoot.
Also avoid using signage that has serifs. Simple block lettering is easiest to discern by both patrons with low vision and by those patrons with learning disabilities that cause problems interpreting letters.
Many large-print programs yield large-print output. Items found on the Internet, however, may not be formulated as such and a printer solution may need to be found. With the variety of fonts available in the standard laser jet and ink jet printer library, it is not necessary to purchase extralarge print cartridges. It is important to choose a default large-print typeface that is as easy to read in large print as it is in standard print. The chart in figure 3-4 (All 14-point fonts are not created equal (selected fonts from Word 97)) offers a comparison of 14-point fonts (an illusion exists that they are not equal in point size).
As stated previously, choose a bold typeface without serifs or italics; people shouldn't have to figure if the letter is an m or an n or an r.
Also, the type produced by a dot matrix printer should not be stretched. Stretching the letters creates white spaces between the dots, making it extremely difficult for persons with visual impairments to read.
Large-print access is one of the easier adaptions to make and helps people born with disabilities and those who are becoming visually impaired because of age to continue to read and access materials. Do not be surprised, however, when staff and public line up to use the oversize display, for it is simply easier on the eyes and on the brain.
Chapter 4
Users who are blind have several options when accessing computers and the Internet. They can choose to have a sighted individual read the information for them, or use a refreshable Braille display or a screen reader interfaced with a synthetic voice output.
Users who have a learning disability that prevents them from accessing standard print generally have only two choices to access printed material that they cannot read. They may choose a sighted human reader or a synthetic voice output driven by a screen reader.
Often, both types of users choose the screen readers with voice-output options. The reason is that human readers are costly and must be scheduled, and Braille is a writing format unknown to the newly blinded, persons whose vision loss is a result of diabetes, or those with a reading disability such as dyslexia. Doug Wakefield, Adaptive Technology Specialist, presents the following overview of speech access with emphasis on accessing the Internet.
Modern computers are usually equipped with both visual- and audio-output mechanisms. The visual output, or that displayed on the system's monitor, is almost always far more important than the information gained from audio output. Audio output is the sounds generated by the computer's multimedia devices. These sounds may be beeps and blips, sound effects, or musical bridges designed to accompany some Windows event such as a program or Window opening or closing (for example, the opening of Microsoft's Windows has a harplike glissando). The sounds can also be those that are retrieved and played from the Internet; these range from prerecorded sound effects to archives of famous speeches or live broadcasts from radio networks around the world.
The ability of today's computers to produce sound often leads to confusion when the subject of computer use by a blind person arises. Because blind people cannot see the screen but can usually hear audio, and a computer has an audio card and can produce sound, does that make it usable by blind people? The answer is a resounding No! Audio produced by a computer system that is used to enhance its output of information can be minimally useful and should never be construed as providing access for a blind person. At present, playing sounds on a computer's speakers is very much like showing graphics on the screen. That is, the sound effect can add aesthetically to the computer's output and can serve as a way to provide extra attention-grabbing warnings and alerts, but often it provides no real data.
Some might think that while these sounds may not be helpful to persons who are blind, they may be helpful to persons with learning disabilities. Again, this is a misconception; in fact, some of the sounds can be distracting to persons with learning disabilities, for many of the sounds and readings are not placed in a way that aids these users to access information and learning.
Another popular myth concerning computer access for blind or visually impaired people is that blind people need to talk to a computer. A great deal of confusion often surrounds voice synthesis versus voice recognition. Voice-recognition systems rely heavily on the user being able to see the screen. While "talking" to a computer, the user is constantly monitoring the screen where the spoken words are being displayed. If a user of voice recognition sees that the computer displays the wrong word, a correction can be made. For a blind computer user, voice recognition is slow, tedious, and inaccurate and should be used only when the user is physically incapable of typing.
If audio output from a computer's multimedia devices and voice input are not really accessible, then what is? To answer this question, consider the information a person needs to operate a computer. To operate a computer, whether on or off the Internet, the user must be able to carry on a conversation or dialogue with the computer. In conventional systems, the computer asks questions, displays status reports, and relays information visually on its monitor. The user talks to the computer by typing on the keyboard.
Access to a computer for a blind person or learning disabled person means being able to carry on this conversation in a nonvisual and logical manner. In short, for both groups of people, the computer either speaks through a speech synthesizer or shows its output on a Braille display simultaneously with the text display. The blind or print disabled user listens to the output and types responses.
Good access to a computer for a person who is blind or learning disabled means being able to understand the questions asked and then making appropriate responses. Also, good access means controlling and comprehending all the information that is retrieved, whether that information is contained in a text document or on a page on the Internet. Speech output is a key element in good access.
How does a speech-output system work? Each system contains two major components. First is the hardware that does the "speaking." This is called a voice synthesizer because it attempts to create human-sounding speech through synthesis. Prerecorded or digitalized speech is not used. As a consequence, even the best speech synthesizers on the market still have a definite robotic quality to their sound. The second component of any speech-output system is the software program, generally referred to as a screen reader. The screen-reading program is a highly complex application that must run behind all other applications. Its job is to monitor, and send to the speech synthesizer, everything going to the computer's screen, whether from the keyboard, internal computer processing messaging and calculations, or coming into the computer from a modem or network connection (figure 4-1: Basics of speech output).
A modern screen reader does more than simply monitor and repeat data. Today's screen readers provide the user with a multitude of options about how the information from the computer is to be spoken. For example, when the computer's keys are pressed, the user can choose to have the voice output speak each letter of a word or string the letters together to form a whole word. The user can choose to hear all the modifier keys announced (<SHIFT>, <TAB>, or <ENTER>) or have them silenced. Most leading screen-reading programs contain a number of these features, but programs vary according to producer and model. As with any product, buyers should read consumer reviews of the screen readers before making any purchasing decisions.{1}
Screen-reading software producers generally supply a variety of configurations written specifically for popular reading applications. Advanced users often further configure a speech program to suit their personal preferences and offer their configurations free of charge at shareware sites.
Typically, current speech programs allow the reader to select whether to have just highlighted text, the whole screen, or no screen output spoken. Additionally, because important messages often appear in a particular color or position on the display screen, the screen reader can be told to monitor the screen for these messages and announce them when they appear.
Other screen-output options control such factors as whether blank lines should be spoken. Should some, most, or all punctuation be spoken? At what rate should the computer speak? How should the speech alert the user when highlighted text is encountered? Naturally, each user will have his or her favorite configuration and more than likely no two people will like the same one.
A major challenge for anyone providing a publicly accessible computer system with speech output installed is finding a solution that will meet each user's individual needs or desires. Libraries are faced with the challenge of providing computer access to people who use a variety of access methods. More than half a dozen speech-output systems are being sold in the United States. Each software package has its legions of dedicated users. Screen-access and speech-output systems are quite complex to configure, learn, and use. For this reason, most computer users learn the intricacies of only one system. Therefore, when a computer user with a disability arrives at a library wishing to use the library's Internet-connected computer, he or she may find the particular access system installed at the library a total mystery. This, of course, leads to disappointment, frustration, and often anger aimed at the library.
Several years ago, it was practical for an end user who required speech output to bring a particular system to the library and hook it up to the library's computer, thus ensuring that the user would know how to operate the computer. This worked when access involved plugging in a remote voice synthesizer and loading a screen reader from one floppy disk. This approach is no longer practical. Most screen-access programs used to access the Windows operating system require multiple disks. When they are installed, they often make basic changes to the computer software setup. Most voice synthesizers today are internal computer boards. To install one of these synthesizers requires opening the computer's case and inserting the board into one of the computer's expansion slots, if one is available. These two factors-the size of modern-day screen-access programs and the use of internal voice synthesizers-make it impractical for users to bring their own systems to a library setting.
Once a basic configuration is established that is likely to meet most users' needs, configuration of the speech software by users should not be allowed. Today, most screen readers automatically save any configurations; therefore, if a user inadvertently changes a working configuration to one that is unusable, the new configuration will be saved. This is where an advisory board comprised of members with various needs and disabilities must work with the site's automation staff to determine which settings are best for the widest range of users. In the same vein, as with settings on workstations for the nondisabled users, compromises will have to be made to serve the greatest number of users. This feature should be disabled or staff will be constantly rebooting the computers to restore the original settings.
Voice synthesizers range in price from a low of around $200, if the computer's sound card is used, to approximately $1,000 with a specialized sound card. Often computer users who are blind or learning disabled prefer the voice synthesizer they use on a daily basis, for they are accustomed to its intonations. In an institutional setting, however, where many different users will be interfacing with the computer and screen reader, more common speech cards such as Dectalk or higher-end Creative Labs Soundblaster card will almost certainly find favor with most users.
The Dectalk and Keynote Gold systems are among the most expensive and, according to many users, produce the best-sounding speech output. Screen-reading software generally costs $500 to $700. At this price range, the software should provide access to the Windows operating system and may also provide support for disk operating system (DOS) programs. At today's prices, a complete speech-output system for a computer can be purchased for $2,000 or less.
Before proceeding, the automation staff must remember that a computer with a multimedia card is not the same as speech output (a common misconception) and that the library should not provide a computer without access equipment and expect users to personalize the system as needed. So the question arises, what is needed?
First, computer hardware requirements must be considered. The computer intended as the public Internet access point that will be fitted with some form of speech output most likely is going to run Windows 95. This means the system must be at least a Pentium with a clock speed of not less than 133 MHz. It should possess 32 megabytes of Random Access Memory (RAM) with a high-quality graphics card installed. Why the need for a quality graphics card if the system is primarily going to be used for blind patrons? The answer is fairly simple. While on the Internet as well as off, today's computers constantly encounter numerous images that need to be processed and displayed. Almost all access software (screen readers) place a drag on the computer's speed. This drag plus the constant need to process graphics can, if a slow video card is installed, make the computer operate at frustratingly slow speeds. A high-performance video card is one of the least-expensive components in the computer and is an area where it is unwise to cut costs.
In summary, the basic computer system that is planned as an accessible workstation should be designed with performance and speed in mind. Adaptive add-ons such as speech synthesizers and screen readers place extra drags on the computers.
Developed by Artic Technologies to navigate the Windows 95 environment, WinVision easily installs from Windows 95 and avails itself of Microsoft's Active Accessibility. WinVision works so closely with Windows that it actually installs its files into the Windows directory. The results are fewer crashes caused by conflicts in Windows when using WinVision than by other screen readers. J. D. Leventhal, Senior Resource Specialist, and C. L. Earl, Resource Specialist, Technical Evaluation Services, National Technology Center, American Foundation for the Blind (AFB), also found that WinVision granted "very good access to text-impaired users" when using Internet Explorer, but only marginal access through Netscape Navigator.{2}
The evaluators found that WinVision's command structure relied heavily on <CONTROL> and <ALT>, but the manufacturer countered with the suggestion that most users were not bothered by the need to double-click <ALT> or <CONTROL> that negated the perceived conflict that Leventhal and Earl found. Artic also pointed out that their product offered the users the opportunity to remap the keyboard (not wise in a shared setting). Another feature of WinVision's program is that it has pop-up menus so speech settings can be easily changed. This is good for the savvy user, but, again, could create a problem for the novice in a shared workstation.
A tutorial on audiocassette is available and documentation updated on an ongoing basis. Artic claims to have a close working relationship with Microsoft, Lotus, and Corel (Word Perfect) to solve current problems and prevent future conflicts. Artic Technologies does maintain a Website, but does not yet offer a demo product.{3}
Automatic Screen Access for Windows (ASAW) is a system that provides blind and learning disabled computer users with "state-of-the-art speech access to applications within the Windows environment." ASAW works by gathering information displayed on the computer screen and translating it into recognizable speech through a supported speech synthesizer.
To access ASAW, the user enters commands via the numeric keypad of a conventional keyboard. The <7> reads the previous line of text and images on the screen, the <8> reads the current line, and <9> reads the next line. The middle row of numbers is used to break the line down word by word, while the bottom row of numbers breaks down the letters of the words. A tutorial is included with the package that frees staff from having to do a lot of teaching.
Commands allow the user to silence punctuation, if desired, as well as silence irrelevant information at will. ASAW also uses a high-tech image-recognition analysis algorithm that allows the user to assign names to images and announce them as such wherever and whenever they appear in the document.
When the product was reviewed by Leventhal and Earl, they concluded that "while the program was easy to install and easy to use, it lacked basic features such as 'Find,' 'Read Paragraph,' which gives the user greater control over what is spoken."{4} The reviewers also felt that the device did not perform well with Internet Explorer 3.02 or Netscape Navigator Gold 3.01 and relied too heavily on users having an "excellent knowledge of the application's use as well as good memory and reasoning skills."
The manufacturer recommends that the computer that ASAW is installed on have at least eight megabytes of RAM for use with Windows 95. The manufacturer does provide prospective clients with a free demonstration diskette that generously details the features and provides a good sense of access issues.{5}
JAWS for Windows (JFW), a product by the Henter-Joyce Corporation, offers the user access to a small set of basic speech commands that are enhanced by program-specific macros to access various window applications (figure 4-2: JAWS for Windows). JFW "looks" at the text displayed on the screen and determines if text that appears to be on the same line actually is on that line or is "spillage" from another column.
Leventhal and Earl reviewed JFW and found it worked well with the Internet Explorer. It automatically read the first screen of a new Website as it loaded by just pressing <PAGE DOWN> and found each link (and spoke) within the site by pressing <TAB>. While used with Netscape Navigator, however, JAWS was not able to find and "speak" each link offered through the site and did not find all the graphics. It should be noted that the problem exists because of Netscape's configuration rather than that of JFW.
Leventhal and Earl found that the macros provided offered easy access to their applications, but more were needed because writing macros is beyond the capabilities of most users. If an operation has automation staff, the macros needed would be fairly easy to write.
Henter-Joyce's JAWS had the honor of being added to the Permanent Research Collection of Information Technology at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in 1999 as it was deemed a product which utilizes new technology for the benefit of society.
Henter-Joyce's product comes with a tutorial and quick reference guide and tollfree technical assistance. A demonstration copy of new and updated products is available on the Henter-Joyce Website.{6}
SLIMWARE Windows Bridge is a product of Syntha-Voice Computers, a Canadian company headquartered in Ontario, with U.S. offices in Niagara Falls, New York, that is popular with North American users. The product allows the user to "feel at home" within the graphical environment of Microsoft's Windows by using the same access commands for navigation (a plus for staff and patrons alike) while using the Syntha-Voice product.
A big plus is that Windows Bridge contains a Mouse Search command that allows the user to instantly move the mouse pointer to a specific location such as an icon or menu selection. It also helps the user find edit boxes and aids in orientation and perception requirements by telling the user how far he or she has moved through a document and the size of the items at the current location.
The product also includes an Icon Label Library, which contains descriptive labels for more than 1,000 commonly used Windows icons, as well as a feature that allows the user to "point" at any icon on the screen and instantly receive a descriptive label for the image.
Another advantage is that the product works with 40 popular synthesizers including Soundblaster. Commands can be given to have the reader announce punctuation, window titles, buttons, graphic frames, prompts, submenus, and dialogue boxes.
According to the evaluation by Leventhal and Earl, SLIMWARE Windows Bridge provided good access to both the Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. The program contains many rewritten configurations and hotkeys that give the experienced user quick access to Internet functions. In addition, while accessing Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer with SLIMWARE and pressing a hotkey and <PAGE DOWN>, the text impaired reader will be able to read the first screen of a new Web page and the following pages.
Leventhal and Earl felt that SLIMWARE was best suited for advanced users, for its sophisticated features allow skilled users to greatly improve its performance in complex applications. They felt that beginners would have difficulty with the program. Syntha-Voice countered this criticism by pointing out that allowance is given to redesign commands using the Bridge's "online Help Mode." Syntha-Voice does offer a complimentary demo program through its home page.{7}
A product of HumanWare products, MasterTouch's claim to fame is that it allows the "user to monitor all or selected screen changes as they occur without the need to suspend the application and review the screen." Promotional material states that command keys can be redefined by the user and that configurations for specialized applications can be instantly retrieved. HumanWare includes a training guide in print, disk, and on cassette; additionally, an online, context-sensitive Help module is included. The strongest selling point for MasterTouch, however, is that it will work on a wide variety of personal computer (PC) networks.
TeleSensory Products realized the importance of developing a product that would allow users who are visually impaired or learning disabled to "listen to the OPAC" and other online materials provided by public libraries. TeleSensory sought out the major library vendors and asked what the company needed to do to make a product that would work in conjunction with the operating software. The answer to giving voice to the catalogs was V Voice.
V Voice works much the same as other screen-reader programs. Adjustments to the displays are executed with keystroke commands. The software comes with headphones, external speaker, and instructional manual. V Voice works with V View, a screen-enlarging product, and can be installed on the same terminal, a major plus.
This product works with many automated systems used by libraries, but not all; check with the software supplier about the compatibility. Telesensory does offer a free demonstration of the product.{8}
Manufactured by GW Micro Inc., Window-Eyes is a moderately priced screen reader that works with an extended 101 keyboard, with the number pad emulating mouse commands. The ACT Center at the University of Missouri-Columbia reviewed the product and found that it was "reliable, stable, and intelligent."{9} The commands are easy to remember and there is no need to develop complex macros (which makes learning easier for the novice), although it is possible to define 50 standard and ten Hyperactive Windows. The Hyperactive Windows will announce changes as they appear in defined regions.
The reviewers found that Window-Eyes did a good job with Netscape when using the standard Windows applications rather than the hotkeys designed to access the page and noted that this was the case wherever problems occurred.
The questions most often asked when discussing speech access to information are, "How good are speech synthesizers and how much do they cost?" Because speech synthesizers are programmed to work with a highly complex set of phonetic rules (as opposed to words), terms and personal names are often pronounced in confusing and amusing manners, for the English language does not follow standard rules of phonetics.
The price range is a wide one, with the less expensive units sounding more mechanical and the more expensive units allotting the user a choice of nine different voices. Much as a person perks up a little when he or she hears a voice reminiscent of pleasant people and times and cringes when he or she hears a voice that does the opposite, speech synthesizers are usually a matter of personal taste. The main thing to look for when choosing a synthesizer is compatibility with the screen reader, for the user will eventually get used to the voice. Note: Synthesizers are available as internal or external peripherals; institutional settings should install the synthesizer internally because there is less chance for manipulation (intentional or unintentional) and theft.
DecTalk (a product of Digital Equipment Corporation) text-to-speech utility provides the user with a wide range of predefined voices (four male, four female, and one child) who "speak" at a rate of 75 to 650 words per minute. DecTalk is programmed with an extensive set of rules to provide greater accuracy of spoken text and proper names. Additionally, there are controls for pauses, pitch, and stress, as well as allowances for homographs. Digital does interface well with most screen readers and is available in several languages. DecTalk is one of the higher-priced, high-quality synthesizers. However, it is the most widely used in the business world and is generally the easiest to understand by new users.
Artic's SynPhonix synthesizer is one of the originals in the artificial speech market. It provides the user with the ability to use hotkeys to adjust the pitch and rate of speed at which the text is spoken. Users find that the speech is crisp and the response is quick. The review keys are easy to manipulate and allow the users to spell the words they do not understand. The SynPhonix synthesizer follows an extensive set of rules to pronounce words.
HumanWare is the manufacturer of Keynote GOLD, a high-end speech synthesizer. Designed to cope with the inconsistencies of the English language, it adjusts to 16 pitch levels and a reading rate of 50 to 500 words per minute. It supports a wide variety of screen readers and enables the user to enter commands independently of the keyboard through a Touch Tablet. The Keynote GOLD offers several language options.
GW Micro's Sounding Board provides the user with a responsive, cost-effective, quality synthesizer. While the product does not offer the user so many options as other synthesizers do, it is acceptable to an audience of various users at different levels of "listening" to artificial voices.
Over the past ten years, issues surrounding the development of software to produce speech or Braille output for blind and learning disabled computer users have become very complicated. The factor contributing most to this complexity is the switch from text-based to graphics-based computer systems. As programmers of today's Windows systems attempt to make computer usage easier and easier for people watching the screen through the use of graphics or symbols, they are, at the same time, making it more and more difficult for the programmers of access systems to produce software that can accurately read the screen.
Entire books and speeches have been written concerning the problems blind people experience using the Windows interface. The use of buttons, scroll bars, wheels, and other nontextual symbols can, indeed, make it very difficult for a blind computer user to navigate through a list of choices. Likewise for the computer users with learning disabilities, trying to interpret the meanings of the items they see can be equally as difficult and aggravating. The less disciplined from these user groups may end up abandoning their treks onto the information highway out of sheer frustration.
The Internet, in particular, can offer a multitude of clever symbols and icons meant to be intuitive to the eye but often obscure to the screen-reading software. No matter what system a public library, university, or any other organization sets up that is intended to provide speech access to the Internet, there will always be Internet sites that cannot be interpreted by screen-reading programs and the alternative "sighted reader" may be needed to interpret what the screen reader cannot.
Because there is often confusion regarding the population's conceptual definition of "the Internet" and "the Web," it is necessary to first define what is meant by the word Internet versus the word Web. The Internet, as defined in Chapter 1, is the actual interconnectivity of computer-based information resources around the world. A variety of methods facilitate communications between these computer systems. Electronic mail is one of the most popular ways for individuals and businesses to use the Internet. When a patron of a library wants to know if he or she can gain access to the Internet at the library, however, it is quite likely that the question is really, Does the library have Web access? This term, the Web, has come to stand for a particular way people use to search for information or enjoy multimedia presentations on the Internet. The Web is an underpinning for the common term the Web browser.
To gain access to information on the Internet that is stored and transmitted over the Web, a computer must have a software package designed to match the requirements of the Web. Popular browsers are Netscape, Internet Explorer, Spyglass, Lynx, and Net-Tamer. Lynx and Net-Tamer are called text browsers because they do not have the inherent ability to show graphics and can run in a nongraphical environment. Web browsers will explore the entire Internet; that is, they are not limited to information that is placed on Web-coded pages.
While it is not difficult to install multiple browsers, it is difficult for staff to remember how to use the accessible browsers in addition to all the standards from reference searches.
While textual information is pretty much the same on or off the Internet, it is the multimedia features of the Internet that make it a unique setting for access systems. Will patrons want to access the multimedia aspect of the Web? The answer is a resounding Yes! especially the audio or sound capabilities of the Internet. Therefore, the Internet access computer should be equipped with a browser that allows the user to play Internet audio, and the screen-reading system should not be tied to the computer sound card unless the screen reader is designed to allow the sound card to play audio.
The most popular screen-reading programs can work with the popular Soundblaster audio card. While the screen reader is operating, however, the sound card generally cannot perform other audio functions that the computer may request. This means that if the screen reader is using the computer's sound card to produce the actual speech, it may not be possible to hear any audio from the Internet. This is why the computer's audio card cannot be used alone and a separate speech synthesizer is required.
Choosing which browser(s) to use as the Internet access system for a library's patrons is an important decision.
Unfortunately, selecting an Internet browser is not a decision that can be made independently of the screen reader. Both the access system and the browser selected for Internet access must be considered together. The various choices for combinations of Internet and screen-reading software are many but are not unlimited.
The most basic Internet access is to use a screen reader and a modem with a communications package to connect to an Internet provider with what is referred to as a shell account. In this situation, the user runs only the communications package on the workstation. All Internet access is provided by the Internet service. This is an inexpensive, uncomplicated way to gain quick access to text on the Internet. Audio or other multimedia features of the Internet are not available. Shell accounts are becoming harder to find as more and more providers move to the "direct connect" Point to Point Protocol (PPP) or a Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) Internet access. In these situations, the provider furnishes a connection to the Internet, but the Internet access software is run on the workstation. Files that are retrieved come directly to the workstation and all multimedia features can be made available.
DOSLynx is a text browser that combined with a DOS-based screen reader will offer basic Internet service to the user. This is a plus for a tight budget because this low-cost approach can be run on a fairly low-powered system. This is important for those still using a SLIP or PPP connection or having a connection to the Internet through a local area network that is DOS- rather than Unix-based. DOSLynx is available free of charge from the University of Kansas. The compiled program (all the original programming code and the documentation) can be downloaded by anyone with an Internet connection.{10}
The disadvantages of DOSLynx are many and quite severe. The multimedia capabilities would not be available and the patron would have to be taught the specific screen-reader package being used. DOSLynx also uses a system that interferes with other operations because the commands to move the pointer or cursor around are <J> and <K> to move up or down on the screen and <H> and <L> to move it left or right. The <L> actually activates a link; <H> takes the user back one link.
Although tedious, this works until the user needs to fill in a form or answer questions that require using these letters-it cannot be done.
Another disadvantage of DOSLynx is that this browser is not well known among the general users and instructions will need to be given. Staff will need at least a rudimentary knowledge of the browser and detailed instructions in a usable medium will need to be developed, for it is unlikely that anyone in the library will have experience running it.
The two most-popular Windows browsers in this category are Netscape and Internet Explorer. Before either of these browsers can be operated by a blind or learning disabled computer user, good access to the Windows operating system itself must be achieved. At present, several Windows screen readers are available. Without exception, no screen reader gives access to Windows or the Internet to the same degree that is obtained by visually watching and comprehending what is displayed on the screen.
Programmers are striving to make the Internet browsers more useful for people using adaptive technologies and progress is being made. And Microsoft has given some attention to helping screen-reader producers develop better access to its popular Explorer program.
It is altruistic to say there are no disadvantages to establishing a public-access workstation with a Windows-based screen reader. The main problem is that screen readers are complex. A user may be well versed in one program and not have any idea how to operate another one. Very possibly, no matter which screen reader is selected, users will have to be trained on using the screen reader before they can learn to access the Internet. The advantages do outweigh the disadvantages: First, there will be full multimedia access, and second, sighted colleagues may be able to provide some assistance, at least with the operation of the mainstream browser.
Keep in mind that sighted computer users who are not familiar with the operation of Windows-based screen readers are often unable to assist a blind user because the blind user depends on keystroke navigation while the sighted computer operator generally uses a mouse to navigate.
A unique group of programs called console applications has been developed that often work better for blind computer operators than pure Windows programs do. One such program is Lynx for Windows, which has all the advantages of a text browser, but it can be easily linked with other applications in Windows so the user can experience multimedia presentations on the Web.
The Lynx program has several